Science & Education

A comprehensive scientific review of peptide degradation pathways including oxidation, deamidation, hydrolysis, aggregation, and racemization — with practical guidance on buffer pH, temperature, excipients, and storage strategies to preserve peptide integrity in research settings.

From the discovery of the incretin effect to semaglutide and triple agonists like retatrutide, trace the science of GLP-1 receptor signaling — including cAMP/PKA pathways, central appetite regulation, and cardiovascular protection.

PEGylation explained for non-specialists — what polyethylene glycol is, how attaching it to peptides extends half-life from minutes to days, real-world examples like PEG-MGF vs MGF, and the trade-offs including anti-PEG antibodies.

An accessible guide to the melanocortin receptor system — what POMC is, how alpha-MSH works, and what each of the five melanocortin receptors (MC1R through MC5R) does. Covers pigmentation, appetite regulation, sexual function, inflammation, and the research peptides that target this system.

An accessible guide to bioregulator peptides — the ultrashort peptides (2-4 amino acids) developed by Vladimir Khavinson over 40 years of research. Covers Epithalon, Pinealon, Cortagen, Vesugen, and Crystagen, plus the tissue-specific gene regulation concept.

A comprehensive research guide to ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue. Covers mechanism of action via GHS-R1a, pharmacokinetics from human studies, selectivity profile, bone metabolism research, and dosing parameters from published literature.

Vitamin B12 is a cobalt-containing coenzyme required for methionine synthase and methylmalonyl-CoA mutase — two reactions essential for DNA synthesis, methylation, and fatty acid metabolism. This guide covers B12 biochemistry, forms, deficiency research, and neurological applications.

NAD+ went from biochemistry textbook footnote to longevity buzzword practically overnight. Here’s what it actually does in your cells, why levels decline with age, and what the research says about restoring them.